People & History 4, The Norman Invasion: A Lasting Legacy
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It has been said that "History is written by the victors." In other words, it’s those who win battles, not those who lose them, who end up influencing history. William the Conqueror was definitely victorious at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, when he took control of Anglo-Saxon England. Although he lived a thousand years ago, his influence can still be felt today in many parts of the world.
"History is written by the victors" also means that the victor’s version of events is usually the one that is remembered. However, the Normans’ version of their conquest of England was not written down on paper; it was embroidered on a long piece of cloth known as the Bayeux Tapestry. Created about thirty years after the invasion, it features over seventy different scenes with Latin captions. In fact, it looks like a kind of medieval comic strip, and remains a crucial source of information about these long-ago events.
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So who was William? This Norman is considered to be one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages. The word "Norman" comes from the word "Norsemen," meaning "people of the north." Excellent sailors and ferocious fighters, the Norsemen—also known as Vikings—came from Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland. In 913, some Norsemen invaded northern France and settled in an area that became known as Normandy. Although they pledged loyalty to the French king, they remained very independent and powerful.
In 1035, William’s father died, and the seven-year-old boy became duke of Normandy. But William was illegitimate, and as a result, many people did not want him to rule. Conflicts broke out, and three of William’s guardians died violently—even his tutor was murdered. But William managed to survive, and these early challenges helped form his character. He was intelligent, strong, energetic, determined, and a fierce soldier.
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The Bayeux Tapestry’s first scene, however, shows not William, but his cousin, Edward. Edward’s grandmother had married into the English ruling family, and Edward became king. He had no children, and according to the tapestry, had promised to make William his heir. But William faced serious competition. Two powerful Anglo-Saxon noblemen, Harold and his brother Tostig, wanted the throne; so did the king of Norway. Before Edward died in January 1066, he chose Harold as his successor, and Harold was crowned king. According to the tapestry, however, Harold had sworn an oath to support William’s claim to the throne. William felt deeply betrayed and decided to invade England.
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William hoped to sail to England in August 1066, but the winds were not good for crossing the English Channel, and his ships had to wait. In early September, the Normans were still waiting for favorable winds. Unfortunately for Harold, most of his southern army consisted of peasants who needed to return home to harvest their crops. So on September 8, he reluctantly let them go.
But Harold’s troubles were just beginning. Tostig and the king of Norway were now invading in the north of England, and he was forced to gather more troops to confront them. On September 25, Harold defeated both his opponents, and he and his men began to march back to the south. Back in France, the winds had finally changed, and on September 28, the Normans landed near Hastings, on England’s southeast coast.
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About two weeks later, Harold finally reached Hastings, his foot soldiers exhausted from fighting and marching. William’s troops were well rested, and his army included archers and about two thousand cavalry in addition to infantry. On the morning of October 14, before the English could properly prepare for battle, the Normans attacked.
The English soldiers defended themselves by forming a shield wall; they lined up side by side in rows and locked their shields together. At first, the Normans could not break through this wall, and they suffered many casualties due to the Anglo-Saxon’s two-handed battle axes.
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Soon, the Norman cavalry panicked and fled. Rumors flew that William had been killed, so William removed his helmet to show he was alive. Inspired, his men turned back to the battlefield and were able to destroy the English troops, who had broken formation to follow the retreating Normans. According to the Bayeux Tapestry, by nightfall, Harold was dead (the result of an arrow to his eye), his troops were in disarray, and the Normans had won the Battle of Hastings.
William was crowned king of England on Christmas Day 1066, and began taking land away from the English to give to Norman lords. Many Anglo-Saxons rebelled, especially in the north. The Normans slew them by the hundreds and destroyed farms and villages, even killing livestock so that any survivors starved to death.
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With the English finally subdued, William set about establishing a system of rule known as the feudal system. He granted land and power to certain lords, who swore loyalty to the king and agreed to supply him with soldiers in wartime. The lords, in return, leased parts of their lands to their knights. At the bottom of this social system were the peasants, who worked the land and served those above them. The Anglo-Saxons had never built castles, but the Norman nobles built them everywhere. From within these castles, they governed their subjects and organized armies, and the castles became very visible reminders of Norman power and the feudal system.
Modern historians know much about the period immediately following the invasion from the Domesday Book, a survey of England conducted in 1086. Written on sheepskin parchment, the book describes 13,418 places, most of which, amazingly, can be found on maps today.
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For each place, the book records details about the people living there, the buildings, the land, the farm animals, and more. Even the numbers of wild horses are listed. Originally compiled so William knew how much each plot of land should be taxed, this remarkable book gives us a "snapshot" of England in the eleventh century. It remains one of England’s most significant historical documents.
William also made changes to the administration of justice in England. Before the Norman conquest, laws and customs could vary from village to village and from decade to decade. William centralized the legal system with a royal court, the King’s Court, and sent out judges all over the land to uphold the country’s laws. This system became known as "common law" because it applied to everyone in the same way. To this day, democracies base their judicial systems on common law.
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Last but not least, the English language as it is spoken today is a direct result of the Norman invasion. The Norman nobles spoke French and Latin, and while they did not replace Anglo-Saxon English, they certainly changed it. Under Norman influence, English became more flexible, acquiring thousands of new words from the Norman tongues.
The Normans prove that history is literally written by the victors, since historians have only the documents left by the conquerors of the Anglo-Saxons. Many people argue that these accounts are not accurate and not fair to the Anglo-Saxons, but sadly, they may never know Harold’s side of the story since he, unlike the victors, left no records behind.